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The fall of communism in 1989-1990 in Eastern Europe was caused primarily by which of the following?
a. widespread unemployment and homelessness
b. Soviet leader Gorbachev's refusal to maintain communism by force
c. a loss of confidence among communist leaders of those nations
d. a negotiated settlement of the Cold War by the United States and the Soviet Union
e. an invasion of the Eastern bloc by members of NATO